Grammar Translation Method

INTRODUCTION
At one time The Grammar-Translation Method was called Classical Method. This method was used for the purpose of helping students read and appreciate foreign language literature. Through the study of the grammar, students would become more familiar with the grammar of their native language and that this familiarity would help them speak and write their native language better. It was thought that foreign language learning would help students grow intellectually.
THE EXPERIENCE
This is some observations a class where the teacher is using The Grammar-Translation Method in the left column and the principles in the right column . It is used to understand the Grammar-Translation Method.
Observations Principles
1.The class is reading the story. A fundamental purpose of learning a foreign language is to be able to read its literature.
2.Students translate the passage from English to Spanish (for example). An important goal is for students to be able to translate each language into the other.
3.The teacher asks students in their native language if they have any questions. A student asks one and is answered in her native language. The ability to communicate in the target language is not a goal of foreign language instruction.
4.Students write out the answers to reading comprehension questions. The primary skills to be developed are reading and writing. Little attention is given to speaking and listening.
5.The teacher decides whether an answer is correct or not. If the answer is incorrect, the teacher selects a different student to supply the correct answer or the teacher herself gives the right answer. The teacher is the authority in the classroom. It is very important that students get the correct answer.
6.Students translate new words from English into Spanish. It is possible to find native language equivalents for all target language words.
7.Students learn that English ‘’-ty’’ corresponds to –dad and –tad in Spanish. Learning is facilitated through attention to similarities between the target language and the native language.
8.Students are given a grammar rule for the use of a direct object with two-word verbs. It is important for students to learn about the form of the target language.
9.Students apply a rule to examples they are given. Deductive application of an explicit grammar rule is a useful pedagogical technique.
10.Students memorize vocabulary. Language learning provides good mental exercise.
11.The teacher asks students to state the grammar rule. Students should be conscious of the grammatical rules of the target language.
12.Students memorize present tense, past tense, and past participle forms of one set of irregular verbs Wherever possible, verb conjugations and other grammatical paradigms should be committed to memory.

REVIEWING THE PRINCIPLES
There are ten answers and questions the principles of the grammar translation method
1. What are the goals of teachers who use the Grammar-Translation Method?
A fundamental purpose of learning a foreign language is to be able to read literature written in the target language. Students need to learn about the grammar rules and vocabulary of the target language. Studying a foreign language provides students with good mental exercise which helps develop their minds.
2. What is the role of the teacher? What is the role of the students?
The teacher is the authority in the classroom. The students do as he says so they can learn what he knows.
3. What are some characteristics of the teaching/learning process?
Students are taught to translate from one language to another. Often what they translate is reading in the target language about some aspect of the culture of the foreign language community. Deductively; they are given the grammar rules and examples, are told to memorize them, and then are asked to apply the rules to other examples.
4. What is the nature of students-teacher interaction? What is the nature of students-students interaction?
Most of the interaction in the classroom is from the teacher to the students. There is little student initiation and little students-students interaction.
5. How are the feelings of the student deal with?
There are no principles of the method which relate to this area.
6. How is language viewed? How is culture viewed?
Literary language is considered superior to spoken language and is therefore the language students study. Culture is viewed as consisting of literature and the fine arts.
7. What areas of language are emphasized? What language skills are emphasized?
Vocabulary and grammar are emphasized. Reading and writing are the primary skills that the students work on. There is much less attention given to speaking and listening. Pronunciation receives little, if any, attention.
8. What is the role of the student’s native language?
The meaning of the target language is made clear by translating it into the student’s native language. The language that is used in class is mostly the student’s native language.
9. How is evaluation accomplished?
Written tests in which students are asked to translate from their native language to the target language or vice versa are often used.
10. How does the teacher respond to student errors?
If students make errors or don’t know an answer, the teacher supplies them with the correct answer.

REVIEWING THE TECHNIQUES
You may choose to try some of the techniques of the Grammar-Translation Method from the review that follows. Below is an expanded description of some of these techniques.
a. Translation of a literary passage
Students translate a reading passage from the target language into their native language. The reading passage then provides the focus for several classes: vocabulary and grammatical structures.
b. Reading comprehension questions
Students answer questions in the target language based on their understanding of the reading passage. They will have to answer questions about the passage even though the answers are not contained in the passage itself.
c. Antonyms / Synonyms
Students are given one set of words and are asked to find antonyms in the reading passage. A similar exercise could be done by asking students to find synonyms for a particular set of words.
d. Cognates
Students are taught to recognize cognates by learning the spelling or sound patterns that correspond between the languages. Students are also asked to memorize words that look like cognates but have meanings in the target language that are different from those in the native language. This technique, of course, would only be useful in languages that share cognates.
e. Deductive Application of Rule
Grammar rules are presented with examples. Exceptions to each rule are also noted. Once students understand a rule, they are asked to apply it to some different examples.
f. Fill-in-the-blanks
Students are given a series of sentences with words missing. They fill in the blanks with new vocabulary items or with items of a particular grammar type, such as prepositions or verbs with different tenses.
g. Memorization
Students are given lists of target language vocabulary words and their native language equivalents and are asked to memorize them.
h. Use Words in Sentences
In order to show that students understand the meaning and use of a new vocabulary item, they make up sentences in which they use the new words.
i. Composition
The teacher gives the students a topic to write about in the target language. Sometimes, instead of creating a composition, students are asked to prepare a précis of the reading passage.

Teaching Writing

Writing is the act of expressing ideas, opinions, thoughts, feelings or emotions through written language. Writing is one form of linguistic competence realization which is expressed in form of written language application. Expressing ideas through written forms are not easy, because there are claimed the existences of thinking ability and many other interrelated aspects. For examples: the mastery of writing materials, the knowledge of written language, motivation etc. Furthermore, writing also can be interpreted as an activity to convey a message (communication) by using written language as its media. \
Writing is an important form of communication in day-to-day life and it is the most difficult skill to be mastered in both a first and a second language. Thus, writing claims more complicated treatment than the activities of using language in spoken form. When doing writing activity, we communicate with the others indirectly. So, it is normal if writing activities are regarded more difficult than speaking activities. In doing writing activities, writers are not interacting with the readers directly.
In writing, there are eight writing skills, as follows:
1. Handwriting
Handwriting is the technique of writing with the hand and a writing instrument. Styles of handwriting are also called hands or scripts. Writing as an art is called calligraphy.
2. Spelling
Spelling is the writing of one or more words with letters and diacritics. In addition, the term often, but not always, means an accepted standard spelling or the process of naming the letters. In the sense of a standard, spelling is one of the elements of orthography and a prescriptive element of alphabetic languages.
3. Punctuation
Punctuation marks are symbols that indicate the structure and organization of written language, as well as intonation and pauses to be observed when reading aloud. Punctuation marks for example: full stop which is placed at the end of sentences, comma which is used for separating things, question mark which is a punctuation mark that replaces the full stop (period) at the end of an interrogative sentence in English and many other languages, exclamation mark which is a punctuation mark usually used after an interjection or exclamation to indicate strong feelings or high volume, and often marks the end of a sentence, colon which informs the reader that the following proves, explains or simply provides elements of what is referred to before, etc.
4. Sentence Construction
A sentence is a group of words that consist of two main parts (i.e. subject and predicate); in addition, they should be grammatically and logically arranged. Every sentence must have a subject and verb. A sentence may be a statement, question, command, request, or exclamation. The first letter must be capitalized, and the sentence must be ended with a final punctuation mark in the form of a period (.); a question mark (?); or an exclamation point (!).
5. Organizing a Text and Paraphrasing
Text is a coherent set of symbol that transmits some kind of informative message. In organizing a good text or limited into a paragraph, the writer have to pay attention with three major structural parts, they are, topic sentence, supporting sentences, and concluding sentence in unity and coherence. Paraphrasing is the activity in restating a text or passage using other word.
6. Text Cohesion
The appropriate used of linking verb, phrases so that the organization of the text is clear to the readers.
Cohesion is the grammatical and lexical relationship with a text or sentence. Cohesion can be defined as the links that hold the text together and give it meaning. It is related to the broader concept of coherence.
7. Register/style
Register is using language (structure and vocabulary) appropriate to the formality of the text and the style
In writing paragraph, there are two commonly used writing style. They are indented style and block style.
a. Indented style
Indented style is writing style in which the first line of each paragraph is typed further the left margin of the page than the other line.
b. Block style
Block style is writing style in which the first line and the other lines of the paragraph is typed without further space from the left margin of the page; the space between paragraphs are typed one line from each other.

Writing is often students' least favourite activity. They may find it hard and time-consuming (even in their own language) and may fear getting back a page covered in red ink. But writing can be motivating and enjoyable. There are some ways to encourage students in writing.
1. Capitalize on students’ existing needs.
2. Help students set achievable goals for themselves.
3. Strengthen students’ self-motivation.
4. Ensure opportunities for students’ success by assigning task that are neither too easy nor too difficult.
5. Make super fun activities.
6. Create atmosphere that is open and positive.
7. Make students active participants in learning because students learn by doing, making, writing, designing, creating, and solving.
8. Give frequent, early, positive feedback that supports students’ beliefs that they can do well.
9. Help students feel that they are valued members of learning community.
10. Avoid creating intense competition among students.
11. Vary teacher teaching method.
12. Reward success.

Process writing is a natural set of steps that writers take to create a finished piece of work. It is a process of organizing ideas and creativity through text. The focus of process writing is on process, not on the end-product. It is useful for all skill levels, from children to published authors, to develop an authentic, creative work. It breaks the act of writing into steps:
• Prewriting (generating ideas; deciding purpose and the reader)
• Drafting (putting ideas down into form)
• Conference (getting reader feedback)
• Revising (rethinking and editing; mini lessons)
• Proofreading (finding and fixing mistakes, correcting mechanics)
• Publishing (sharing with the reader).
The above steps do not exist in a linear way. Writers sometimes go back and forth among steps. The application of process writing can take various forms: writers' workshop, writing across the curriculum, the use of journals or logs, and modelled writing.
There are several approaches in teaching writing, as follows:
1. Copying
This technique is for young learners, they copy letters or word that they see.
2. Dictation
This is technique which combine listening and writing. Students listen something from teacher arc d player and write what they have listened in a piece of paper.
3. Fill in the blank
Students fill words, phrase, etc in the incomplete sentence in order to make it grammatically correct.
4. Picture cued writing practice
Students write a paragraph based on picture that is shown to them in unity and coherence related with the picture.

SPEECH FUNCTIONS, POLITENESS AND CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION

We adapt our talk to suit our audience and talk differently to children, customers and colleagues. We use language differently in formal and casual contexts. The purpose of talk will also affect its form. One relevant factor is politeness.
Polite is often a matter of selecting linguistic form which express the appropriate degree of social distance or which recognize relevant status or power differences. Rules of polite behavior differ from one speech community to another linguistic politeness is culturally determined.
The Function of Speech
Boss : Good morning sue. Lovely day.
Secretary : Yes it’s beautiful. Makes you wonder what we’re doing here
doesn’t.
Boss : Mm, that’s right. Look I wonder if you could possibly sort this lot
out by ten. I need them for a meeting.
Secretary : Yes sure. No problem.
Boss : Thanks that’s great.
This dialogue is typical of many everyday interactions in that it serves both an affective ( or social ) function, and a referential ( or informative ) function.
There are a number of ways of categorizing the functions of speech. The following list has proved a useful one in sociolinguistic research.
1. Expressive, utterances express the speaker’s feelings, e.g. I’m feeling great today.
2. Directive, utterances attempt to get someone to do something, e.g. Clear the tape.
3. Referential, utterances provide information, e.g. At the third stroke it will be three o’clock precisely.
4. Metalinguistic, utterance comment on language itself, e.g. ‘hegemony’ is not a common word.
5. Poetic, utterances focus on aesthetic features of language, e.g. a poem, an ear-catching motto, a rhyme, peter piper picked a peck of pickled peppers.
6. Phatic, utterances express solidarity and empathy with others, e.g. Hi, how are you, lovely day isn’t it!.
They seem to be very fundamental functions of any interaction of language, perhaps because they derive from the basic components of any interaction – the speaker ( expressive), the addressee ( directive ) and the message ( referential ).
Directives
Directives are concerned with getting people to do things. The speech acts which express directive force vary in strength. Polite attempts to get people to do something tend to use interrogatives or declaratives, as the following examples illustrate.
Sit down IMPERATIVE
You sit down YOU IMPERATIVE
Could you sit down? INTERROGATIVE WITH MODAL VERB
Sit down will you? INTERROGATIVE WITH TAG
Won’t you sit down? ITERROGATIVE WITH NEGATIVE MODAL
I want you to sit down. DECLARATIVE
I’d like you to sit down. DECLARATIVE
You’d be more comfortable DECLARATIVE
siting down.

There are many ways of expressing this directive. We can say in general the interrogatives and declaratives are more polite than the imperatives, a great deal depends on intonation, tone of voice and context.
People who are close friends or intimates use more imperatives, for instance. Example below were all produced within a family, were (almost!) all said without rancour, and caused no offence.
Example:
(a) Roll over.
(b) Shut up you fool.
(c) Set the table, Robbie.
(d) Wash your hands for tea, children.
(e) Turn that blessed radio down.
Where status differences are clearly marked and accepted, superiors tend to use imperatives to subordinates. Teachers often use imperatives to pupils.
Example 6
(a) Open your books at page 32
(b) Shut the door
(c) Stop talking please.
Teachers can use very direct expressions of their meaning because of their high status relative to their pupils.
Formality and status may be very relevant in choosing an appropriate directive form. Another factor which is relevant to the form of a directive is the routines or reasonableness of the task.
In general, imperatives are used between people who know each other well or to subordinates. Interrogatives and declaratives, including hints, tend to be used between those who are less familiar with each other, or where there is some reason to feel the task being requested is not routine.
Politeness and Address Forms
It is difficult to learn because it involves understanding not just the language, but also the social and cultural values of the community. We often don’t appreciate just how complicated it is, because we tend to think of politeness simply as a matter of saying please and thank you in the right places.
These two dimensions also provide the basis for a distinction between two different types of politeness.
• Positive politeness is solidarity oriented it emphasizes shared attitudes and values. When the boss suggests that a subordinate should use first name (FN) to her, this is a positive politeness move, expressing solidarity and minimizing status differences.
• Negative politeness pays people respect and avoids intruding on them. Negative politeness involves expressing oneself appropriately in terms of social distance and respecting status difference. Using title + last name (TLN) to your superiors, and to older people that you don’t know well, are further examples of the expression of negative politeness.
Being polite may also involve the dimensions of formality. In a formal situation the appropriate way of talking to your brother will depend on your roles in the context.
Linguistic Politeness in Different Cultures
Anyone who has travelled outside their own speech community is likely to have had some experience of miscommunication based on cultural differences. Often these related to different assumptions deriving from different ‘normal’ environments.

For example:
A Thai student in Britain, for example, reported not being able to understand what her hostess meant when she asked on which day the week would you like to have your bath? Coming from a very hot country with a ‘water-oriented culture’, the notion that she might have a bath only once a week was very difficult to grasp.
Learning another language usually involves a great deal more that learning the literal meaning of the words, how to put them together, and how to pronounce them. We need to know what they mean in the cultural context in which they are normally used. And that involves some understanding of the cultural and social norms of their user.
We talk automatically make many unconscious sociolinguistic assumptions about what people mean when they ask a particular question or make a statement. When we ask someone to dinner, we expect something more elaborate than This is Dr Kennedy. When we ask someone to dinner we assume they will know the norms concerning appropriate dress, time of arrival, and possible topics for discussion during the evening.
Greeting
In different cultures each of these questions is perfectly acceptable as part of a normal greeting routine. They are formulas, and the expected answer is ritualistic. Just as a detailed blow-by-blow description of the state of your cold would be unexpected and inappropriate in response to how are you?, so the South-East Asian questioner does not expect a minutes and specific account of your intended journey and destination. Greeting formulas universally serve an affective function of establishing non-threatening contact and rapport, but their precise content is clearly culture specific.